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| - | '''Participation''' in social science refers to different mechanisms for the public to express opinions - and ideally exert influence - regarding political, economic, management or other social decisions. Participatory decision-making can take place along any realm of human social activity, including economic (i.e. participatory economics), political (i.e. participatory democracy or parpolity), management (i.e. participatory management), cultural (i.e. polyculturalism) or familial (i.e. feminism).
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| - | For well-informed participation to occur, it is argued that some version of transparency, e.g. radical transparency, is '''necessary''', but not '''sufficient'''. It has also been argued that those most affected by a decision should have the most say while those that are least affected should have the least say in a topic.[citation needed]
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| | + | == Participation is ... == |
| | | | |
| - | | + | ... Planning together (co-planning) |
| - | == Objectives of participation ==
| + | ... contribution |
| - | Participation activities may be motivated from an administrative perspective or a citizen perspective on a governmental, corporate or social level. From the administrative viewpoint, participation can build public support for activities. It can educate the public about an agency's activities. It can also facilitate useful information exchange regarding local conditions. Furthermore, participation is often legally mandated. From the citizen viewpoint, participation enables individuals and groups to influence agency decisions in a representational manner.[1] How well participation can influence the relation between citizen and their local government, how it increases trust and boosts peoples willingness to participate Giovanni Allegretti explains in an interview using the example of participatory budgeting.[2]
| + | ... not as easy as often thought |
| - | | + | ... imagination |
| - | | + | ... fun |
| - | == Classifying participation ==
| + | ... action |
| - | Sherry Arnstein discusses eight types of participation in A Ladder of Citizen Participation (1969). Often termed as "Arnstein's ladder", these are broadly categorized as:
| + | ... collaboration employed through presence or contribution |
| - | | + | ... important in community building |
| - | *[[Citizen Power]]: Citizen Control, Delegated Power, Partnership.
| + | ... self-engagement |
| - | *Tokenism: Placation, Consultation, Informing.
| + | ... vital for a smooth co-existence |
| - | *[[Non-participation]]: Therapy, Manipulation.
| + | ... being part of the process |
| - | | + | ... hard work |
| - | She defines citizen participation as the redistribution of power that enables the have-not citizens, presently excluded from the political and economic processes, to be deliberately included in the future.[3]
| + | ... democratic necessity and right |
| - | | + | ... inviting people to share their ideas and values |
| - | Robert Silverman expanded on Arnstein's ladder of citizen participation with the introduction of his "citizen participation continuum." In this extension to Arstein's work he takes the groups that drive participation into consideration and the forms of participation they pursue. Consequently, Silverman's continuum distinguishes between grassroots participation and instrumental participation.[4]
| + | ... democratic (potentially!) |
| - | | + | ... a quality of democracy |
| - | Archon Fung presents another classification of participation based on three key questions: Who is allowed to participate, and are they representative of the population? What is the method of communication or decision-making? And how much influence or authority is granted to the participation?[5]
| + | ... an act of living in spatial orders |
| - | | + | ... the best way to learn about something and/on yourself |
| - | Other "ladders" of participation have been presented by D.M. Connor,[6] Wiedemann and Femers,[7] A. Dorcey et al.,[8] Jules N. Pretty[9] and E.M. Rocha.[10]
| + | ... be present in certain ways. not just physical |
| - | | + | ... representation of models of desire / intentions |
| - | | + | ... great if it benefits everyone |
| - | == Specific participation activities ==
| + | ... participatory |
| - | *Town hall meeting
| + | ... difficult, demanding and a growing expectation (if not practice) for current day governance |
| - | *Advisory committee
| + | ... *being involved and involve other people *the '''real''' democracy *a process |
| - | *Citizens' jury
| + | ... work / multilingual |
| - | *Opinion poll
| + | ... willing to join and give attention or input |
| - | *Participatory design
| + | ... active investment of one's own |
| - | *Participatory budgeting
| + | ... action |
| - | *Referendum
| + | ... sometimes a pain in the ass |
| - | *Protest
| + | |
| - | *Vote
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| - | == Civic opportunity gap ==
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| - | Youth participation in civic activities has been found to be linked to a student's race, academic track, and their school's socioeconomic status.[11] The American Political Science Task Force on Inequality and American Democracy has found that those with higher socioeconomic status participate at higher rates than those with lower status.[12] A collection of surveys on student participation in 2008 found that "Students who are more academically successful or white and those with parents of higher socioeconomic status receive more classroom-based civic learning opportunities."[11] Youth from disadvantaged backgrounds are less likely to report participation in school-based service or service-learning than other students.[13][14] Students with more highly educated parents and higher household incomes are more likely to have the opportunity to participate in student government, give a speech, or develop debating skills in school.[15]
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| - | == Corporate participation ==
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| - | Participation in the corporate sector has been studied as a way to improve business related processes starting from productivity to employee satisfaction.[16][17]
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| - | == See also ==
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| - | *Accountable autonomy
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| - | *e-participation
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| - | *Public relations
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| - | *Participatory politics
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| - | *The participatory approach
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| - | This article concerns participation in processes of public decision-making. For a more general discussion of participation in decision processes, and reference to other contexts in which participation is of (growing) relevance, see:
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| - | | + | |
| - | *Participative decision-making
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| - | == References ==
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| - | 1. ^ Glass, J.J. (1979), "Citizen participation in planning: the relationship between objectives and techniques", Journal of the American Planning Association 45 (2): 180–189, doi:10.1080/01944367908976956, retrieved 2010-06-12
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| - | 2. ^ Eva-Maria Verfürth (February 2013). "More generous than you might think". dandc.eu.
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| - | 3. ^ Arnstein, S.R. (1969), "A Ladder of Citizen Participation", Journal of the American Planning Association 35 (4): 216–224, doi:10.1080/01944366908977225, retrieved 2010-06-12
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| - | 4. ^ Silverman, R.M. (2005). Caught in the middle: Community development corporations (CDCs) and the conflict between grassroots and instrumental forms of citizen participation. Community Development, 36(2): 35-51.
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| - | 5. ^ Fung, A. (2006), "Varieties of Participation in Complex Governance", Public Administration Review-Washington Dc- 66: 66–75, doi:10.1111/j.1540-6210.2006.00667.x, retrieved 2010-06-12
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| - | 6. ^ Connor, D.M. (1988), "A new ladder of citizen participation", National Civic Review 77 (3): 249–257, doi:10.1002/ncr.4100770309, retrieved 2010-06-12
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| - | 7. ^ Wiedemann, P.M.; Femers, S. (1993), "Public Participation in waste management decision making: analysis and management of conflicts", Journal of Hazardous Materials 33 (3): 355–368, doi:10.1016/0304-3894(93)85085-s, retrieved 2010-06-12
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| - | 8. ^ Dorcey, A.; Doney, L.; Rueggeberg, H. (1994), "Public Involvement in government decision making: choosing the right model", BC Round Table on the Environment and the Economy, Victoria
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| - | 9. ^ Pretty, Jules N. (1995). "Participatory Learning For Sustainable Agriculture". World development 23 (8): 1247–1263. doi:10.1016/0305-750x(95)00046-f.
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| - | 10. ^ Rocha, E.M. (1997), "A ladder of empowerment", Journal of Planning Education and Research 17 (1): 31, doi:10.1177/0739456x9701700104, retrieved 2010-06-12
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| - | 11.^ a b Kahne, Joseph and Middaugh, Ellen (2008), "Democracy for some: The civic opportunity gap in high school", Circle Working Paper, retrieved 2013-09-25
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| - | 12. ^ APSA Task Force on Inequality and American Democracy (2004), "American Democracy in an Age of Rising Inequality", Perspectives on Politics
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| - | 13. ^ Spring, Dietz, and Grimm (2007), Leveling the Path to Participation: Volunteering and Civic Engagement Among Youth from Disadvantaged Circumstances, Corporation for National and Community Service
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| - | 14. ^ Atkins, R. and Hart, D. (2003), "Neighborhoods, Adults, and the Development of Civic Identity in Urban Youth", Applied Developmental Science
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| - | 15. ^ Condon, M. (2007), "Practice Makes Participants: Developmental Roots of Political Engagement", Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association
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| - | 16. ^ Greenwood, M. (2007), "Stakeholder Engagement: Beyond the Myth of Corporate responsibility", Journal of Business Ethics, doi:10.1007/s10551-007-9509-y
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| - | 17. ^ Shetzer, L. (1993), "A social information processing model of Employee Participation", Organization Science 4 (2), doi:10.1287/orsc.4.2.252
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| - | [From wikipedia.com]
| + | |
... Planning together (co-planning)
... contribution
... not as easy as often thought
... imagination
... fun
... action
... collaboration employed through presence or contribution
... important in community building
... self-engagement
... vital for a smooth co-existence
... being part of the process
... hard work
... democratic necessity and right
... inviting people to share their ideas and values
... democratic (potentially!)
... a quality of democracy
... an act of living in spatial orders
... the best way to learn about something and/on yourself
... be present in certain ways. not just physical
... representation of models of desire / intentions
... great if it benefits everyone
... participatory
... difficult, demanding and a growing expectation (if not practice) for current day governance
... *being involved and involve other people *the real democracy *a process
... work / multilingual
... willing to join and give attention or input
... active investment of one's own
... action
... sometimes a pain in the ass
