Organisms

From Geography

Luhmann distinguishes four levels of autopoetic systems: machines, organisms, psychic systems and social systems. Organisms can import matter and energy from their environment for their own production, in that way they are open systems (Gren & Zierhofer, 2003, p. 617). From the operational point of view, they can be seen as closed systems, this also characterizes psychic and social systems.

References

Gren, M. & Zierhofer, W. (2003) The unity of difference: a critical appraisal of Niklas Luhmann’s theory of social systems in the context of corporeality and spatiality. In: Environment and Planning A., 35, 615-630.

Contributors

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